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+ENNETH 2 ,ANG $EPARTMENT OF 0HYSICS AND !STRONOMY 2OBINSON (ALL 4UFTS 5NIVERSITY -EDFORD -! 53! KENLANG TUFTSEDU
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5JUMFQBHFJMMVTUSBUJPO ! LARGE SOFT 8 RAY CUSP STRUCTURE MPXFSSJHIU IS DETECTED AFTER A CORONAL MASS EJECTION ON *ANUARY 4HE CUSP SEEN EDGE ON AT THE TOP OF THE ARCH IS THE PLACE WHERE THE OPPOSITELY DIRECTED MAGNETIC lELDS THREADING THE TWO LEGS OF THE ARCH ARE STRETCHED OUT AND BROUGHT TOGETHER 3EVERAL SIMILAR IMAGES HAVE BEEN TAKEN WITH THE 3OFT 8 RAY 4ELESCOPE 384 ABOARD :PILPI SHOWING THAT MAGNETIC RECON NECTION IS A COMMON METHOD OF ENERGIZING SOLAR EXPLOSIONS #OURTESY OF ,OREN 7 !CTON .!3! )3!3 THE ,OCKHEED -ARTIN 3OLAR AND !STROPHYSICS ,ABORATORY THE .ATIONAL !STRONOMICAL /BSERVATORY OF *APAN AND THE 5NIVERSITY OF 4OKYO
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!LL RIGHTS RESERVED 4HIS WORK MAY NOT BE TRANSLATED OR COPIED IN WHOLE OR IN PART WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PER MISSION OF THE PUBLISHER 3PRINGER 3CIENCE "USINESS -EDIA ,,# 3PRING 3TREET .EW 9ORK .9 53! EXCEPT FOR BRIEF EXCERPTS IN CONNECTION WITH REVIEWS OR SCHOLARLY ANALYSIS 5SE IN CONNECTION WITH ANY FORM OF INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL ELECTRONIC ADAPTATION COMPUTER SOFTWARE OR BY SIMILAR OR DIS SIMILAR METHODOLOGY NOW KNOWN OR HEREAFTER DEVELOPED IS FORBIDDEN 4HE USE IN THIS PUBLICATION OF TRADE NAMES TRADEMARKS SERVICE MARKS AND SIMILAR TERMS EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT IDENTIlED AS SUCH IS NOT TO BE TAKEN AS AN EXPRESSION OF OPINION AS TO WHETHER OR NOT THEY ARE SUBJECT TO PROPRIETARY RIGHTS 0RINTED IN 3INGAPORE !PEX+9/ SPRINGERCOM
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(IPTUMJLF/FVUSJOPT
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(IPTUMJLF/FVUSJOPT
'*( 3OLAR NEUTRINO ENERGY SPECTRUM .EUTRINOS ARE PRODUCED INSIDE THE 3UN AS A BYPROD UCT OF NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS IN ITS CORE BUT BOTH THE AMOUNTS AND ENERGIES OF THE NEUTRINOS DEPEND ON THE ELEMENT FUSED AND THE DETAILED MODEL OF THE SOLAR INTERIOR (ERE WE SHOW THE ENERGY SPECTRUM OF NEUTRINOS PREDICTED BY THE 3TANDARD 3OLAR -ODEL 4HE LARGEST mUX OF SOLAR NEUTRINOS IS FOUND AT LOW ENERGIES THEY ARE PRODUCED BY THE MAIN PROTON PROTON ABBREVIATED PP REACTION IN THE 3UNS CORE ,ESS ABUNDANT HIGH ENERGY NEUTRINOS ARE PRODUCED BY A RARE SIDE REACTION INVOLVING BORON 4HE SHADING DENOTES THE DETECTION RANGE OF THE GAL LIUM CHLORINE AND WATER EXPERIMENTS 4HE GALLIUM EXPERIMENT CAN DETECT THE LOW ENERGY PP NEUTRINOS AS WELL AS THOSE OF HIGHER ENERGY BOTH THE CHLORINE AND WATER DETECTORS ARE SENSITIVE TO THE HIGH ENERGY BORON NEUTRINOS 4HE NEUTRINO mUXES FROM CONTINUUM SOURCES PP AND BORON ARE GIVEN IN THE UNITS OF NUMBER PER SQUARE METER PER SECOND PER MILLION ELECTRON VOLTS -E6 AT ONE ASTRONOMICAL UNIT THE %ARTHS MEAN DISTANCE FROM THE 3UN .EUTRINOS SHOULD ALSO BE GENERATED AT TWO SPECIlC ENERGIES WHEN BERYLLIUM CAPTURES AN ELECTRON AND ALSO DURING A RELATIVELY RARE PROTON ELECTRON PROTON ABBREVIATED PEP REACTION THEIR mUXES ARE GIVEN IN NUMBER PER SQUARE METER PER SECOND 4HE NEUTRINO ENERGY SPECTRA FROM REACTIONS WITH CARBON NITROGEN AND OXYGEN ABBREVIATED # . AND / ARE DRAWN WITH DASHED LINES THEY ACCOUNT FOR ABOUT PERCENT OF THE CONVERSION OF PROTONS INTO HELIUM WITHIN THE 3UN WHILE THE PROTON PROTON CHAIN PRODUCES PERCENT OF THE HELIUM !DAPTED FROM *OHN . "AHCALL !LDO - 3ERENELLI AND 3ARBANI "ASU "TUSPQIZTJDBM +PVSOBM ,
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'*( -AGNETOGRAM 4HIS MAGNETOGRAM WAS TAKEN ON &EBRUARY CLOSE TO THE MAXIMUM IN THE 3UNS YEAR CYCLE OF MAGNETIC ACTIVITY 9ELLOW REPRESENTS POSI TIVE OR NORTH POLARITY POINTING OUT OF THE 3UN WITH RED THE STRONGEST lELDS WHICH ARE AROUND SUNSPOTS BLUE IS NEGATIVE OR SOUTH POLARITY THAT POINTS INTO THE 3UN WITH GREEN THE STRONGEST )N THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE UPQIBMG POSITIVE lELDS LEAD IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE CPUUPNIBMG THE POLARITIES ARE EXACTLY REVERSED AND THE NEGATIVE lELDS LEAD #OURTESY OF 7ILLIAM # ,IVINGSTON .3/ AND ./!/
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'*( 3PECTROHELIOGRAPH ! SMALL SECTION OF THE 3UNS IMAGE AT THE FOCAL PLANE OF A TELESCOPE IS SELECTED WITH A NARROW ENTRY SLIT 3 AND THIS LIGHT PASSES TO A DIFFRACTION GRATING PRODUCING A SPECTRUM ! SECOND SLIT 3 AT THE FOCAL PLANE SELECTS A SPECIlC WAVELENGTH FROM THE SPECTRUM )F THE PLATE CONTAINING THE TWO SLITS IS MOVED HORIZONTALLY THEN THE ENTRANCE SLIT PASSES ADJACENT STRIPS OF THE SOLAR IMAGE 4HE LIGHT LEAVING THE MOVING EXIT SLIT THEN BUILDS UP AN IMAGE OF THE 3UN AT A SPECIlC WAVELENGTH
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'*( 4HE 3UN IN HYDROGEN ALPHA 4HIS GLOBAL IMAGE OF THE 3UN WAS TAKEN IN THE LIGHT OF HYDROGEN ATOMS EMITTING AT THE ALPHA TRANSITION THAT OCCURS AT A PARTICULAR RED WAVELENGTH OF NANOMETERS )T SHOWS SMALL DARK MAGNETIC SUNSPOTS LONG DARK SNAKING lLAMENTS AND BRIGHT PLAGE #OURTESY OF THE "AIKAL !STROPHYSICAL /BSERVATORY !CADEMY OF 3CIENCES 2USSIA
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'*( 3PICULES 4HOUSANDS OF DARK LONG THIN SPICULES OR LITTLE SPIKES DOT THIS HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE OF A SOLAR ACTIVE REGION TAKEN WITH THE 3WEDISH 3OLAR 4ELESCOPE ABBREVIATED 334 ON THE #ANARY )SLAND OF ,A 0ALMA ,AYERED NEEDLE SHAPED SPICULES SJHIUTJEF EACH ABOUT A KILOMETER WIDE SHOOT OUT TO MORE THAN KILOMETERS 4HE NARROW JETS OF GAS ARE MOVING OUT OF THE SOLAR CHROMOSPHERE IN MAGNETIC CHANNELS OR mUX TUBES AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS OF UP TO KILOMETERS PER SECOND 4IME SEQUENCED IMAGES HAVE SHOWN THAT THESE SPICULES RISE AND FALL IN ABOUT lVE MINUTES DRIVEN BY SOUND WAVES BENEATH THEM #OURTESY OF 334 2OYAL 3WEDISH !CADEMY OF 3CIENCES AND ,-3!,
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'*( #ALCIUM MAGNETIC NETWORK 4HIS GLOBAL SPECTROHELIOGRAM OF THE 3UN WAS TAKEN IN THE LIGHT OF THE SINGLY IONIZED CALCIUM ABBREVIATED #A )) AT THE CORE OF THE VIOLET + LINE WITH A WAVELENGTH OF NANOMETERS 4HE EMISSION OUTLINES THE CHROMOSPHERE CALCIUM NETWORK WHERE MAGNETIC lELDS ARE CONCENTRATED LIKE THE EDGES OF THE TILES IN A MOSAIC IT LIES JUST ABOVE THE MAGNETIC NETWORK OF CONCENTRATED MAGNETISM IN THE PHO TOSPHERE 4HE BRIGHTEST EXTENDED REGIONS ARE CALLED PLAGES THEY ARE DENSE PLACES IN THE CHROMOSPHERE FOUND ABOVE SUNSPOTS OR OTHER ACTIVE AREAS OF THE PHOTOSPHERE IN REGIONS OF ENHANCED MAGNETIC lELD #OURTESY OF .3/ ./!/ AND .3&
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'*( -AGNETIC LOOPS MADE VISIBLE !N ELECTRIlED MILLION DEGREE GAS KNOWN AS PLASMA IS CHANNELED BY MAGNETIC lELDS INTO BRIGHT THIN LOOPS 4HE MAGNETIZED LOOPS STRETCH UP TO KILOMETERS FROM THE VISIBLE SOLAR DISK SPANNING UP TO TIMES THE DIAMETER OF PLANET %ARTH 4HE MAGNETIC LOOPS ARE SEEN IN EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION OF EIGHT AND NINE TIMES IONIZED IRON DENOTED &E )8 AND &E 8 AT A WAVELENGTH OF NANOMETERS AND A TEMPERATURE OF ABOUT MILLION KELVIN 4HE HOT PLASMA IS HEATED AT THE BASES OF LOOPS NEAR THE PLACE WHERE THEIR LEGS EMERGE FROM AND RETURN TO THE PHOTOSPHERE "RIGHT LOOPS WITH A BROAD RANGE OF LENGTHS ALL HAVE A lNE THREAD LIKE SUBSTRUCTURE WITH WIDTHS AS SMALL AS THE TELESCOPE RESOLUTION OF SECOND OF ARC OR KILOMETERS AT THE 3UN 4HIS IMAGE WAS TAKEN WITH THE 5SBOTJUJPO3FHJPO"OE$PSPOBM&YQMPSFS ABBREVIATED 53"$& SPACECRAFT #OURTESY OF THE 53"$& CONSORTIUM ,-3!, AND .!3! 53"$& IS A MISSION OF THE 3TANFORD ,OCKHEED )NSTITUTE FOR 3PACE 2ESEARCH A JOINT PROGRAM OF THE ,OCKHEED -ARTIN 3OLAR AND !STROPHYSICS ,ABORATORY OR ,-3!, FOR SHORT AND 3TANFORDS 3OLAR /BSERVATORIES 'ROUP
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'*( %CLIPSE CORONA 4HE MILLION DEGREE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE KNOWN AS THE CORONA IS SEEN AROUND THE BLACK DISK OF THE -OON PHOTOGRAPHED IN WHITE LIGHT FROM ATOP -AUNA +EA (AWAII DURING THE SOLAR ECLIPSE ON *ULY 4HE MILLION DEGREE ELECTRICALLY CHARGED GAS IS CONCENTRATED IN NUMER OUS lNE RAYS AS WELL AS LARGER HELMET STREAMERS #OURTESY OF THE (IGH !LTITUDE /BSER VATORY .ATIONAL #ENTER FOR !TMOSPHERIC 2ESEARCH
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'*( 1UIESCENT PROMINENCE $ENSE COOL GAS SEEN IN THE RED LIGHT OF HYDROGEN ALPHA AT THE RIM OF THE 3UN OUTLINES MAGNETIC ARCHES THAT ARE SILHOUETTED AGAINST THE DARK BACK GROUND 4HE PROMINENCE MATERIAL APPEARING AS A mAMING CURTAIN UP TO KILOMETERS ABOVE THE PHOTOSPHERE IS PROBABLY INJECTED INTO THE BASE OF THE MAGNETIC LOOPS IN THE CHROMOSPHERE #OURTESY OF THE "IG "EAR 3OLAR /BSERVATORY
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'*( #ORONAL STRUCTURES NEAR SUNSPOT MINIMUM 4HE 3UNS CORONA BECOMES VISIBLE TO THE UNAIDED EYE DURING A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE SUCH AS THIS ONE OBSERVED FROM /RANJESTAD !RUBA ON &EBRUARY CLOSE TO A MINIMUM IN THE 3UNS YEAR CYCLE OF MAGNETIC ACTIVITY 3EVERAL INDIVIDUAL PHOTOGRAPHS MADE WITH DIFFERENT EXPOSURE TIMES WERE COMBINED AND PROCESSED ELECTRONICALLY IN A COMPUTER TO PRODUCE THIS COMPOSITE IMAGE WHICH SHOWS THE SOLAR CORONA APPROXIMATELY AS IT APPEARS TO THE HUMAN EYE DUR ING TOTALITY .OTE THE lNE RAYS AND HELMET STREAMERS THAT EXTEND FAR FROM THE 3UN ALONG THE EQUATORIAL REGIONS MFѫ AND SJHIU AND THE POLAR RAYS UPQ AND CPUUPN THAT SUGGEST A GLOBAL DIPOLAR MAGNETIC lELD #OURTESY OF &RED %SPENAK
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'*( #ORONA AT SUNSPOT MAXIMUM 4HE DIM GHOSTLY LIGHT OF THE 3UNS OUTER ATMOSPHERE THE CORONA DURING A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE ON &EBRUARY OBSERVED FROM 9ELLAPUR )NDIA 4HIS WAS A TIME NEAR SUNSPOT MAXIMUM WHEN THE SUNSPOTS ARE MOST NUMEROUS 4HE BRIGHT HELMET STREAMERS WERE THEN DISTRIBUTED ABOUT THE ENTIRE SOLAR LIMB RESEMBLING THE PETALS ON A mOWER 4HE STALKS OF THE STREAMERS STRETCH OUT MILLION KILO METERS OR ABOUT SIX SOLAR RADII FROM THE CENTER OF THE 3UN IN THIS PHOTOGRAPH )T WAS TAKEN THROUGH A RADIALLY GRADED lLTER TO COMPENSATE FOR THE SHARP DECREASE IN THE ELECTRON DENSITY AND CORONAL BRIGHTNESS WITH DISTANCE FROM THE 3UN #OURTESY OF *OHANNES $URST AND !NTOINE :ELENKA 3WISS &EDERAL /BSERVATORY
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'*( 4HE HELIOSPHERE 7ITH ITS SOLAR WIND GOING OUT IN ALL DIREC TIONS THE 3UN BLOWS A HUGE BUBBLE IN SPACE CALLED THE HELIOSPHERE 4HE HELIOPAUSE IS THE NAME FOR THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE HELIOSPHERE AND THE INTERSTELLAR GAS OUTSIDE THE 3OLAR 3YSTEM )NTERSTELLAR WINDS MOLD THE HELIOSPHERE INTO A NON SPHERICAL SHAPE CREATING A BOW SHOCK WHERE THEY lRST ENCOUNTER IT 4HE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS ARE SHOWN NEAR THE CENTER OF THE DRAWING
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'*( -AGNETIC TRAP #HARGED PARTICLES CAN BE TRAPPED BY %ARTHS MAG NETIC lELD 4HEY BOUNCE BACK AND FORTH BETWEEN POLAR MIRROR POINTS IN EITHER HEMISPHERE AT INTERVALS OF SECONDS TO MINUTES AND THEY ALSO DRIFT AROUND THE PLANET ON TIME SCALES OF HOURS !S SHOWN BY THE .ORWEGIAN SCIENTIST #ARL 3TRMER ¥ IN WITH THE TRAJECTORIES SHOWN HERE THE MOTION IS TURNED AROUND BY THE STRONGER MAGNETIC lELDS NEAR THE %ARTHS MAGNETIC POLES "ECAUSE OF THEIR POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGE THE PROTONS AND ELECTRONS DRIFT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
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'*( 2ADIATION BELTS %LECTRONS AND PROTONS ENCIRCLE THE %ARTH WITHIN TWO DONUT SHAPED OR TORUS SHAPED REGIONS NEAR THE EQUATOR TRAPPED BY THE TERRESTRIAL MAGNETIC lELD 4HESE REGIONS ARE NOW CALLED THE INNER AND OUTER 6AN !LLEN RADIATION BELTS NAMED AFTER THE !MERICAN SCIENTIST *AMES ! 6AN !LLEN ¥ WHO lRST OBSERVED THEM WITH THE &YQMPSFS AND SATELLITES IN 4HE INNER BELTS CHARGED PARTICLES TEND TO HAVE HIGHER ENERGIES THAN THOSE IN THE OUTER BELT 4HE TRAPPED PARTICLES CAN DAMAGE THE MICROCIRCUITS SOLAR ARRAYS AND OTHER MATERIALS OF SPACECRAFT THAT PASS THROUGH THE 6AN !LLEN RADIATION BELTS ! TORUS OF HIGH ENERGY PARTICLES CREATES A THIRD RADIA TION BELT LOCATED JUST INSIDE OF THE INNER 6AN !LLEN BELT BUT NOT SHOWN HERE IT CONTAINS HEAVY NUCLEAR IONS THAT ORIGINATED OUTSIDE OUR 3OLAR 3YSTEM AND ONCE DRIFTED BETWEEN THE STARS
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'*( !LTAMAHA RIVER DELTA 'EORGIA 4HE HISTORY OF THE 3EA )SLANDS IN THE !LTAMAHA 2IVER DELTA ON THE COAST OF 'EORGIA IS REVEALED IN THIS RADAR IMAGE 4HE OUTLINES OF LONG LOST PLANTATION RICE lELDS CANALS DIKES AND OTHER INLETS ARE DElNED 3ALT MARSHES ARE SHOWN IN RED WHILE DENSE CYPRESS AND LIVE OAK TREE CANOPIES ARE SEEN IN YELLOW GREENS !GRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE !LTAMAHA DELTA BEGAN SOON AFTER THE FOUNDING OF THE 'EORGIA #OLONY IN 4HE lRST MAJOR CROP WAS INDIGO FOLLOWED BY RICE AND COTTON ! MAJOR STORM IN DESTROYED MUCH OF THE TOWN OF $ARIEN VQQFSSJHIU 4HE #IVIL 7AR n ENDED THE PLANTATION SYSTEM AND MANY OF THE ISLAND PLANTATIONS DISAPPEARED UNDER HEAVY BRUSH AND NEW GROWTH PINE FORESTS 4HE "UTLER )SLAND DFOUFSMFѫ PLANTATION BECAME A WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SITE GROWING WILD SEA RICE FOR MIGRATING DUCKS AND OTHER WATERFOWL !)2BORNE 3YNTHETIC !PERTURE 2ADAR ABBREVIATED !)23!2 IMAGE COURTESY OF .!3! *0, AND THE 5NIVERSITY OF %DINBURGH
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'*( ! THIN COLORED LINE "RILLIANT RED AND BLUE MARK THE THIN ATMOSPHERE THAT WARMS AND PROTECTS US AS VIEWED FROM SPACE AT SUNRISE OVER THE 0ACIlC /CEAN 7ITHOUT THIS ATMOSPHERIC MEMBRANE WE COULD NOT BREATHE AND OUR LAKE AND OCEAN WATERS WOULD FREEZE #OURTESY OF .!3!
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'*( 4HE SEASONS !S THE %ARTH ORBITS THE 3UN THE %ARTHS ROTATIONAL AXIS IN A GIVEN HEMISPHERE IS TILTED TOWARD OR AWAY FROM THE 3UN 4HIS VARIABLE TILT PRODUCES THE SEASONS BY CHANGING THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE 3UNS RAYS STRIKE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE %ARTHS SURFACE 4HE GREATEST SUNWARD TILT OCCURS IN THE SUMMER WHEN THE 3UNS RAYS STRIKE THE SURFACE MOST DIRECTLY )N THE WINTER THE RELEVANT HEMISPHERE IS TILTED AWAY FROM THE 3UN AND THE 3UNS RAYS OBLIQUELY STRIKE THE SURFACE 7HEN IT IS SUMMER IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE IT IS WINTER IN THE SOUTHERN HEMI SPHERE AND WJDFWFSTB .OTICE THAT THE RADIUS OF THE %ARTH AND 3UN AND THE %ARTHS ORBIT ARE NOT DRAWN TO SCALE
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4VO &BSUIBOE4LZ
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