Transcript
List of Figures
Figure 1–1
Artist’s rendition of onshore petroleum reservoir ... 2
Figure 1–2
Artist’s rendition of offshore petroleum reservoir... 3
Figure 1–3
Sedimentary environment ....................................... 4
Figure 1–4
Grain sizes of sediments .......................................... 5
Figure 1–5
Natural gas reservoirs and trapping mechanisms ... 7
Figure 1–6
Gas cap ..................................................................... 7
Figure 1–7
Phase diagram ........................................................ 10
Figure 1–8
The gas deviation factor for natural gases ............. 15
Figure 1–9
Pseudocritical properties of natural gases.............. 17
Figure 1–10
Pseudocritical temperature adjustment factor, e3 .. 21
Figure 1–11
Viscosity of natural gases at 1 atm......................... 26
Figure 1–12
Viscosity ratio at elevated pressures and temperatures .......................................................... 26
Figure 1–13
Viscosity of gases at 1 atm ..................................... 27
Figure 2–1
Offshore seismic data acquisition.......................... 37
Figure 2–2
S-wave impedance from AVO inversion for an offshore natural gas bearing structure ................... 39
Figure 2–3
Calculated Poisson ratios for the zone of interest in Figure 2–2........................................................... 39
Figure 2–4
Seismic attribute of a structure: Ratios of compressional-reflection to shear-reflection amplitudes.............................................................. 40
Figure 2–5
Drilling rig components ........................................ 42
xix
xx List of Figures
Figure 2–6
Measured versus extrapolated from correlations drilling fluid densities at high pressures................ 46
Figure 2–7
Measured drilling fluid densities of four fluids at depth and at predicted temperatures and pressures ................................................................. 46
Figure 2–8a
Onshore wellbore example .................................... 50
Figure 2–8b
Offshore wellbore example .................................... 51
Figure 2–9
Selected completion types ..................................... 51
Figure 2–10
Gas critical flow rate versus flowing tubing pressure for Example 2–5 ....................................... 55
Figure 3–1
Steady-state flow .................................................... 63
Figure 3–2
Production versus flowing bottomhole pressure for Example 3–1 ........................................................67
Figure 3–3
A sketch of an openhole vertical well and its cross section ........................................................... 75
Figure 3–4
Turbulence effects in both horizontal and vertical wells........................................................... 81
Figure 3–5
Effects of index of permeability anisotropy .......... 82
Figure 3–6
Pushing the limits: maximum JD with constraints... 88
Figure 3–7
Folds of increase between fractured and unfractured wells ................................................... 94
Figure 3–8
Fluid flow from reservoir to a transverse fracture....95
Figure 3–9
Chart of iterative calculation procedure................ 97
Figure 3–10
Productivity comparison among vertical and horizontal wells with and without fracture........... 98
Figure 3–11
Skin versus permeability in the single transversely fractured horizontal well ....................................... 99
Figure 3–12
Flow geometry in pipe ......................................... 100
Figure 3–13
Well deliverability for Example 3–9, k =1 md, Dtbg = 3 in.............................................................. 105
Figure 3–14
Well deliverability for Example 3–9, k =10 md, Dtbg = 3 in.............................................................. 105
Figure 3–15
Well deliverability for Example 3–9, k =10 md, Dtbg = 6.3 in. .............................................................106
Figure 3–16
Material balance for Example 3–10 ..................... 108
Figure 3–17
Production rate, reservoir pressure, and cumulative recovery for Example 3–10 ............... 109
List of Figures xxi
Figure 4–1
Generalized gas processing schematic ................. 117
Figure 4–2
Forces on liquid droplet ....................................... 119
Figure 4–3
Vertical three-phase separator ............................. 124
Figure 4–4
Obtain G from the downcomer allowable flow ... 128
Figure 4–5
Two-phase vertical separator ............................... 135
Figure 4–6
Three-phase horizontal separator.............................. 140
Figure 4–7
Three-phase horizontal separator with a weir ..... 146
Figure 4–8
Water content of sweet natural gas ..................... 153
Figure 4–9
Water content correction for sour natural gas .... 155
Figure 4–10
Hydrate formation prediction ............................. 158
Figure 4–11
A sketch of a typical glycol dehydration process 161
Figure 4–12
Gas capacity for packed glycol gas absorbers for gg = 0.7 at 100°F .............................................. 161
Figure 4–13
Trays or packing required for glycol dehydrators... 163
Figure 5–1
Economically preferred options for monetizing stranded natural gas............................................. 173
Figure 5–2
Basic pipeline capacity design concept................ 173
Figure 5–3
Diagram for Example 5–1 .................................... 176
Figure 5–4
Moody diagram.................................................... 178
Figure 5–5
Pipeline and compressor station for Example 5–2...179
Figure 5–6
Work needed to compress gas from p1 to p2 ........ 181
Figure 5–7
Loading and offloading terminal for LNG and CNG .............................................................. 186
Figure 5–8
Regions actively investigating CNG projects....... 187
Figure 5–9
Schematic of a CNG vessel................................... 189
Figure 5–10
Schematic of a CNG vessel................................... 190
Figure 5–11
Gas deviation factor Z as function of pressure and temperature for natural gas .......................... 190
Figure 5–12
Value of ZT/p as function of pressure and temperature for natural gas ................................. 191
Figure 5–13
“Hub-and-Spoke” (left) and “Milk-Run” (right) paths for CNG distribution to N receiving sites (terminals T1,…, TN) ............................................. 193
Figure 5–14
Potential “Hub-and-Spoke” scheme for CNG distribution to island countries in the Caribbean Sea with large consumption of electricity ........... 194
xxii List of Figures
Figure 5–15
Potential “Milk-Run” scheme for CNG distribution to island countries in the Caribbean Sea with small consumption of electricity .......... 195
Figure 5–16
Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery site using two CNG vessels... 195
Figure 5–17
Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery point using three CNG vessels..195
Figure 5–18
Scheduling of gas delivery from a single source to a single delivery site using n CNG vessels ....... 196
Figure 5–19
Minimum number of vessels, nmin, required to implement a CNG delivery schedule corresponding to various ratios of consumptions rates over loading rates ................ 197
Figure 5–20
Dependence of vessel capacity and total fleet capacity on the number of vessels, n, for Example 5–4 ......................................................... 200
Figure 5–21
Dependence of vessel capacity and total fleet capacity on the number of vessels, n, for Example 5–5 ......................................................... 203
Figure 5–22
Schedule development for CNG distribution by n similar vessels to N receiving sites serviced successively on a cyclical path as shown in Figure 5–13 ........................................................... 204
Figure 5–23
Destinations for CNG delivery using Milk-Run scheme ................................................................. 207
Figure 6–1
Typical LNG plant block flow diagram................ 211
Figure 6–2
Typical natural gas/refrigerant cooling curves .... 213
Figure 6–3
Simple cooler/condenser...................................... 216
Figure 6–4
Three-stage process for liquefaction .................... 218
Figure 6–5
Simple flash condensation process ...................... 220
Figure 6–6
Simplified schematic of Linde process................. 221
Figure 6–7
APCI process......................................................... 223
Figure 6–8
p-H diagram for methane .................................... 224
Figure 6–9
Simplified APCI process schematic ...................... 225
Figure 6–10
Typical propane precooled mixed refrigerant process.................................................................. 228
Figure 6–11
Optimized cascade process .................................. 229
Figure 6–12
Single mixed refrigerant loop .............................. 230
List of Figures xxiii
Figure 6–13
Mixed fluid cascade process (MFCP) ......................232
Figure 6–14
IFP/Axens Liquefin™ process .................................233
Figure 6–15
Schematic overview of the DMR refrigeration cycles .................................................................... 235
Figure 6–16
LNG carrier size progression ................................ 236
Figure 6–17
Moss type LNG tanker ......................................... 237
Figure 6–18
Membrane type LNG tanker ................................ 237
Figure 7–1
Basic flowchart of indirect conversion of natural gas to liquids through syngas and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis .................................... 246
Figure 7–2
Relative values of equilibrium constants for steam reforming and water gas shift Reactions (7.14) and (7.15), respectively ............. 253
Figure 7–3
Equilibrium compositions for steam reforming at 20 atm and stoichiometry H2O/CH4 = 3. Methane convers on is complete at about 1,000°C. The production of CO2 from the water gas shift reaction is maximum around 700° C .... 253
Figure 7–4
The ratio of H2/CO as a function of the ratio of steam/methane for Example 7–3 ......................... 257
Figure 7–5
Relative activity of transition metal catalysts for steam reforming.......................................................... 257
Figure 7–6
Configuration of a steam reforming reactor at multiple levels of detail: (a) tube bundle in furnace, (b) reactor tube, and (c) catalyst pellet. Heat can be provided to the long tubes in a number of ways, not shown ................................ 259
Figure 7–7
Autothermal reforming reactor ........................... 261
Figure 7–8
Configuration of ceramic membrane partial oxidation reactor (not drawn to scale) ................ 263
Figure 7–9
Timeline of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis ................ 264
Figure 7–10
Thermodynamics of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of decane (n = 10) via the reaction 10CO + 20H2 → C10H20 + 10H2O .......................... 267
Figure 7–11
Initiation step of Fischer-Tropsch reactions ........ 269
Figure 7–12
Chain growth step of Fischer-Tropsch reactions ...269
Figure 7–13
Chain termination step of Fischer-Tropsch reactions resulting in alkanes (first two) or alkenes (third) ...................................................... 269
xxiv List of Figures
Figure 7–14
Theoretical dependence of mass fraction Wn of Fischer-Tropsch products C1–C20 on the chain growth probability, a, according to the AFS Eq. (7.44) .............................................................. 270
Figure 7–15
Theoretical cumulative distribution of FischerTropsch products according to the AFS Eq. (7.44), for different values of growth probability, a ....... 271
Figure 7–16
Theoretical cumulative distribution of FischerTropsch products according to the AFS Eq. (7.44), for different values of the growth probability, a ... 272
Figure 7–17
Theoretical composition of fuel product from Fischer-Tropsch synthesis according to the AFS Eq. (7.44), for different values of the growth probability, a........................................................ 272
Figure 7–18
Theoretical composition of fuel products from Fischer-Tropsch synthesis according to the AFS Eq. (7.44), for different values of the growth probability, a........................................................ 275
Figure 7–19
Types of Fischer-Tropsch reactors.............................279
Figure 7–20
Typical compositions of Fischer-Tropsch products before and after hydrocracking ............ 283
Figure 8–1
U.S. Underground natural gas storage facilities in the lower 48 states ........................................... 291
Figure 8–2
Storage measures .................................................. 293
Figure 8–3
p/Z curve vs cumulative gas storage .................... 296
Figure 8–4
p/Z vs gas storage for Example 8–2 ...................... 297
Figure 8–5
p/Z versus Gs plot for Example 8–3 ...................... 299
Figure 9–1
The world energy mix, past, present, and future...305
Figure 9–2
World’s main natural gas proven reserves holders compared to oil and coal ........................ 309
Figure 9–3
The Wind potential of the United States at 50 land and offshore............................................ 311
Figure 9–4
Net electricity generation by energy source...........326
Figure 9–5
Wind electricity generation cost for three US cities at discount rates (6%, 8%, and 10%) .... 326
Figure 9–6
Solar electricity generation cost for three US cities at discount rates (6%, 8%, and 10%) .... 327
Figure 9–7
Historical CO2 emissions from electric power sector .................................................................... 329