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Nutrient Elements In Grasslan...il-plant-animal Relationships - Preface

Elementos de nutrientes na pastagem - Relações solo- planta-animal

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NUTRIENT ELEMENTS IN GRASSLAND Soil–Plant–Animal Relationships David C. Whitehead Department of Soil Science University of Reading UK Formerly of the Grassland Research Institute, Hurley, Berkshire, and the Institute for Grassland and Environmental Research, North Wyke Research Station, Devon, UK CABI Publishing 373 CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International CABI Publishing 10 E 40th Street Suite 3203 New York, NY 10016 USA CABI Publishing CAB International Wallingford Oxon OX10 8DE UK Tel: +1 212 481 7018 Fax: +1 212 686 7993 Email: [email protected] Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Email: [email protected] Web site: http://www.cabi.org © CAB International 2000. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Whitehead, D. C. (David Charles) Nutrient elements in grassland : soil-plant-animal relationships / D.C. Whitehead. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-85199-437-7 (alk. paper) 1. Trace elements in animal nutrition. 2. Ruminants--Nutrition. 3. Trace elements in plant nutrition. 4. Forage plants--Composition. 5. Soils--Trace element content. I. Title. S592.6.T7 W55 2000 636. 2′0845--dc21 00-028927 ISBN 0 85199 437 7 Typeset by AMA DataSet Ltd, UK. Printed and bound in the UK at the University Press, Cambridge. A3885:AMA:First Revision:26-Sep-00 374 Chapter-0 Contents Contents Preface xiii Notes: Units, Terminology, Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction Nutrient Elements Essential for Plants and Animals Types of Grassland in Temperate Regions The Significance of Legume Species Nutrient Deficiencies in Temperate Grassland Systems Nutrient Cycling in Grassland Systems Problems of Sampling and Analysis Mass Balances of Nutrient Elements in Grassland Systems 1 1 3 5 7 8 11 13 2 Nutrient Elements in Soils Origin of Major Soil Constituents Influence of Parent Material on Nutrient Elements in Soils Inputs from the Atmosphere Inputs from Fertilizers and Liming Materials Recycling through the Decomposition of Plant Material Recycling through the Excreta of Grazing Animals Inputs from the Disposal of Sewage Sludges Availability of Nutrient Elements to Plants in Relation to Chemical Form and Soil Processes Influence of Cation Exchange Capacity of the Soil on Availability Influence of Soil pH on Availability Influence of Soil Organic Matter on Availability Influence of Soil Redox Conditions on Availability Assessment of Nutrient Availability in Soils Losses of Nutrient Elements from Grassland Soils 15 15 19 21 23 23 27 30 v A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 375 Chapter-0 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 vi 3 4 Contents Uptake and Concentrations of Nutrient Elements in Grassland Herbage Growth and Characteristics of Roots in Grassland Plants Contact between Nutrient Ions and the Root Surface Processes of Nutrient Uptake by Plant Roots The Importance of the Rhizosphere and of Mycorrhizal Associations Uptake of Nutrient Elements through Leaves Transport and Metabolism of Nutrient Elements in Plants Distribution of Nutrient Elements in Grasses and Legumes Ranges of Concentration of Nutrient Elements in Grassland Herbage Removal of Nutrient Elements in Harvested Herbage Plant : Soil Concentration Ratios The Concept of the Critical Concentration Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Influence of Stage of Maturity on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Influence of Weather and Seasonal Factors on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Changes in the Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements during Conversion to Hay or Silage Influence of Soil Type on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Influence of Fertilizers, Lime and Sewage Sludge on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Influence of Livestock Excreta on Herbage Concentrations of Nutrient Elements Chemical Forms of Nutrient Elements in Herbage Nutrient Elements in Ruminant Animals Outline of Digestive Physiology in Ruminant Animals Metabolic Requirements for Nutrient Elements Homeostatic Control of Nutrient Elements in Animal Tissues Concentrations of Nutrient Elements in Animal Tissues and Milk Animal : Plant Concentration Ratios Absorption of Nutrient Elements from the Diet Factors Influencing the Availability of Nutrient Elements in the Diet Assessment of the Dietary Requirements of Nutrient Elements Occurrence and Diagnosis of Deficiencies in Ruminant Animals Soil Ingestion by Ruminant Animals Nutrient Elements Supplied by Drinking-water Excretion of Nutrient Elements A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 376 Chapter-0 41 41 44 45 48 50 51 52 53 54 55 55 58 60 63 64 65 66 67 68 70 70 72 74 77 79 80 81 83 85 88 90 90 Contents vii Partitioning of Ingested Nutrients to Animal Products and Excreta 5 6 Nitrogen Natural Sources and Amounts of N in Soils Agricultural and Atmospheric Inputs of N Recycling of N through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Forms and Availability of N in Soils Losses of N from Soils Assessment of Plant-available N in Soils Uptake of N by Herbage Plants Functions of N in Plants Influence of Fertilizer N on Herbage Yield and on Milk Production Distribution of N within Herbage Plants Ranges of Concentration and Critical Concentrations of N in Herbage Plants Influence of N Supply from Soil and Fertilizer on Concentrations of N in Herbage Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of N in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of N in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of N in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P, K and S and Lime on Concentrations of N in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of N in Herbage Chemical Forms and Availability of Herbage N to Ruminant Animals Metabolic Functions of N in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary N by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for N in Ruminant Animals Excretion of N by Ruminant Animals Transformations of N in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of N in Grassland Systems Phosphorus Natural Sources and Concentrations of P in Soils Agricultural and Atmospheric Inputs of P to Soils Recycling of P through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Forms and Availability of P in Soils Losses of P from Soils Assessment of Plant-available P in Soils Uptake of P by Herbage Plants A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 377 Chapter-0 93 95 95 96 98 100 101 104 105 107 108 111 112 113 113 115 115 117 117 118 119 119 121 121 123 124 126 126 127 128 130 132 133 134 viii Contents Functions of P in Herbage Plants Influence of Fertilizer P on Yields of Grassland Herbage Distribution of P within Herbage Plants Range of Concentrations and Critical Concentrations of P in Herbage Plants Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of P in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of P in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of P in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer N on Concentrations of P in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P and K and of Lime on Concentrations of P in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of P in Herbage Chemical Forms of Herbage P Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of P in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary P by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for P in Ruminant Animals Effects of P Deficiency on Ruminant Animals Excretion of P by Ruminant Animals Transformations of P in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of P in Grassland Systems 7 Sulphur Natural Sources and Concentrations of S in Soils Atmospheric and Agricultural Inputs of S to Soils Recycling of S through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Forms and Availability of S in Soils Losses of S from Soils Assessment of Plant-available S in Soils Uptake of S by Herbage Plants Functions of S in Herbage Plants Influence of Fertilizer S on Yields of Grassland Herbage Distribution of S within Herbage Plants Range of Concentrations and Critical Concentrations of S in Herbage Plants Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of S in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of S in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of S in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer N on Concentrations of S in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P, K and S on Concentrations of S in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of S in Herbage A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 378 Chapter-0 135 135 137 138 140 141 143 143 144 145 146 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 154 154 155 157 159 161 162 163 164 165 166 168 170 171 172 172 173 173 Contents ix Chemical Forms of Herbage S Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of S in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary S by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for S in Ruminant Animals Effects of S Deficiency and Excess on Ruminant Animals Excretion of S by Ruminant Animals Transformations of S in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of S in Grassland Systems 8 Macronutrient Cations: Potassium, Sodium, Calcium and Magnesium Sources and Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Soils Agricultural and Atmospheric Inputs of K, Na, Ca and Mg Recycling of K, Na, Ca and Mg through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Losses of K, Na, Ca and Mg from Soils Forms and Availability of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Soils Assessment of Plant-available K, Na, Ca and Mg in Soils Uptake of K, Na, Ca and Mg by Herbage Plants Functions of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Plants Distribution of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Plants Ranges of Concentration and Critical Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Plants Influence of Fertilization with K, Na, Ca and Mg on Yields of Grassland Herbage Influence of Species and Variety on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Soil Type on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer N on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer K on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of the Application of Na, Mg and Lime on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage Chemical Forms and Availability of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Herbage A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 379 Chapter-0 173 174 175 175 176 177 179 180 181 181 182 183 185 186 187 188 189 189 191 194 196 199 200 201 202 204 204 205 206 207 x Contents Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary K, Na, Ca and Mg by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for K, Na, Ca and Mg in Ruminant Animals Effects of Deficiencies of K, Na, Ca and Mg on Ruminant Animals Excretion of K, Na, Ca and Mg by Ruminant Animals Transformations of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of K, Na, Ca and Mg in Grassland Systems 9 Micronutrient Cations: Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper and Cobalt Sources and Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Soils Agricultural and Atmospheric Inputs of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co to Soils Recycling of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Forms and Availability of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Soils Losses of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co from Soils Assessment of Plant-available Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Soils Uptake of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co by Herbage Plants Functions of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Plants Distribution of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co within Herbage Plants Ranges of Concentration and Critical Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Plants Toxic Concentrations of Mn, Zn and Cu in Herbage Plants Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Soil Type on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer N on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P and K and Lime on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Influence of the Addition of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu or Co on the Concentrations of these Elements in Herbage Chemical Forms of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Herbage Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Ruminant Animals A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 380 Chapter-0 208 210 212 214 215 216 218 220 220 222 223 225 228 228 228 230 232 233 234 235 237 239 240 240 241 242 242 243 244 Contents xi Absorption of Dietary Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Ruminant Animals Effects of Deficiencies of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co on Ruminant Animals Excretion of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co by Ruminant Animals Transformations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Co in Grassland Systems 10 The Nutrient Halogens: Chlorine and Iodine Sources and Concentrations of Cl and I in Soils Atmospheric and Agricultural Inputs of Cl and I to Soils Recycling of Cl and I through the Decomposition of Organic Residues Forms and Availability of Cl and I in Soils Losses of Cl and I from Soils Uptake of Cl and I by Herbage Plants Functions of Cl and I in Herbage Plants Distribution of Cl and I in Herbage Plants Ranges of Concentration of Cl and I and Critical Concentrations of Cl in Herbage Plants Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Soil Type on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer N on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Fertilizer P and K, of Lime and of KI on Concentrations of Cl and I in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of Cl in Herbage Chemical Forms of Cl and I in Herbage Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of Cl and I in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary Cl and I by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for Cl and I in Ruminant Animals Effects of Deficiencies of Cl and I, and Toxicity of I, on Ruminant Animals Excretion of Cl and I by Ruminant Animals Transformations of Cl and I in Grassland Systems A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 381 Chapter-0 246 249 250 252 252 252 255 255 257 259 259 260 261 261 262 262 263 264 264 265 266 266 267 267 267 269 270 271 272 274 Contents xii Quantitative Balances of Cl and I in Grassland Systems 11 Boron, Molybdenum and Selenium Sources and Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Soils Agricultural and Atmospheric Inputs of B, Mo and Se to Soils Forms and Availability of B, Mo and Se in Soils Losses of B, Mo and Se from Soils Assessment of Plant-available B, Mo and Se in Soils Uptake of B, Mo and Se by Herbage Plants Functions of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Plants Distribution of B, Mo and Se within Herbage Plants Ranges of Concentration and Critical Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Plants Influence of Plant Species and Variety on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Influence of Stage of Maturity on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Influence of Season of the Year and Weather Factors on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Influence of Soil Type on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Influence of Fertilizers and Lime on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Influence of the Addition of B, Mo and Se on Concentrations of these Elements in Herbage Influence of Livestock Excreta on Concentrations of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Chemical Forms and Availability of B, Mo and Se in Herbage Occurrence and Metabolic Functions of B, Mo and Se in Ruminant Animals Absorption of Dietary B, Mo and Se by Ruminant Animals Nutritional Requirements for Mo and Se in Ruminant Animals Effects of Deficiencies and Toxicities of B, Mo and Se on Ruminant Animals Excretion of B, Mo and Se by Ruminant Animals Transformations of B, Mo and Se in Grassland Systems Quantitative Balances of B, Mo and Se in Grassland Systems 274 275 275 276 277 279 280 280 281 282 283 284 286 287 287 289 290 291 292 292 293 294 295 296 298 299 Glossary 301 References 304 Appendix 361 Index 363 A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 382 Chapter-0 Preface Preface This book is concerned with the various chemical elements that are nutrients for either plants or animals. Its primary objective is to bring together information on the concentrations and main transformations of these elements in soils, in grassland plants and in ruminant animals. The data are restricted to those relevant to the grassland areas of temperate regions: data from tropical grasslands are not included. For each element, attention is given to its forms and availability in soils, its uptake and distribution in grassland plants, its role in animal nutrition and the amounts and forms excreted by grazing animals. The influences of soil, plant, weather and management factors on the concentrations of the elements in grassland herbage are described and the concentrations related to the needs of ruminant animals, particularly cattle and sheep. In addition, typical annual balances of the inputs and outputs of each element, on a per hectare basis, are estimated for both intensively managed and extensively managed grassland. The book will probably be used mainly as a source of reference, and the way in which the chapters are subdivided and the extensive list of references are intended to facilitate this type of use. Readers are assumed to have a basic knowledge of soil science and plant and animal physiology, but a glossary of some of the more specialized terms is included. For the sake of brevity, chemical symbols of the elements are used in the text and, although all the elements often occur as ions, the electrical charge (+ or −) is indicated only where there is specific reference to the ionic form. In compiling this book, I have drawn partly on information gathered during a period of more than 25 years spent at the Grassland Research Institute, Hurley, UK, until its closure in 1992. Since that time, secondment from the North Wyke Research Station of the Institute for Grassland and Environmental Research and a subsequent Fellowship in the Department of Soil Science at the University of Reading have provided access to the University Library, which has been a major source of additional information. xiii A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 383 Chapter-0 xiv Preface I would particularly like to thank, for their encouragement and the provision of office accommodation, the current Head of the Department of Soil Science, Professor B.J. Alloway, and his predecessors, Professor P.J. Gregory and Professor R.S. Swift. David C. Whitehead Reading January 2000 A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 384 Chapter-0 Notes Notes Units Data for herbage yields and rates of fertilizer application are stated in kg ha−1, some having been converted from lb acre−1. For conversion: 1.0 kg = 2.21 lb 1.0 ha = 2.46 acres 1.0 kg ha−1 = 0.89 lb acre−1 1.0 lb acre−1 = 1.12 kg ha−1 Terminology Chemical symbols are used for the nutrient elements. Quantities and concentrations of nutrient elements are stated in terms of the actual elements, not their oxides. The concentrations cited for soil and herbage refer to concentrations in the dry matter, unless otherwise stated; concentrations for animal tissues refer to concentrations in live weight (the usual practice), unless otherwise stated. Abbreviations DM DTPA EDTA M MAFF OM dry matter diethylenetrinitrilopenta-acetic acid ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid molar (concentration in solution) Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (UK) organic matter xv A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 385 Chapter-0 A3885:AMA:First Revision:14-Sep-00 386 Chapter-0